In earlier times, the society was divided was divided on the basis of varnas.
The societies which were neither divided by varnas nor did they follow the rituals prescribed by Brahmanas. Such societies are often referred as “tribes”.
Members of tribes were united by kinship bonds.
They earned their livelihood through agriculture, hunting-gathering or herding.
They usually lived in forests, hills, deserts and places difficult to reach.
Tribal people preserved their rich customs and oral traditions, but didn’t keep a written record.
The list of some powerful tribes who controlled large territories:
Punjab – Khokhar tribe ( thirteenth and fourteenth centuries ).
Punjab – Gakkhars ( later became more powerful )
Multan and Sind – Langahs and Arghuns
North-west – Balochis
Western Himalaya – Gaddis.
North-eastern of subcontinent – the Nagas, Ahoms and many others.
Bihar and Jharkhand – Chero ( twelfth century ).
Orissa and Bengal – Mundas and Santals
Maharashtra highlands and Karnataka – Kolis, Berads and numerous others.
South – Koragas, Vetars, Maravars and many others.
Western and central India – Bhils
Chhattisgarh, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra and Andhra Pradesh – Gonds
Itinerant group consists of craftspersons, pedlars and entertainers.
Nomads are those people who wander from place to place.
Banjaras were the most important trader-nomads and their caravan was called tanda. They transported grains for Mughal army during military campaigns.
Pastotal tribes earned their livelihood by rearing and selling cattle and horses.
As the times changed, new jatis or smaller castes emerged within varnas.
Eg: Among the Kshatriyas, new Rajput clans became powerful during eleventh and twelfth centuries.
The Gonds
The Gonds lived in a vast forested region called Gondwana – or “country inhabited by Gonds”.
They practiced shifting cultivation.
The tribe was divided into clans, and each clan had its own raja or rai.
The Gond kingdom was divided into garhs, and each garh was controlled by a particular clan.
Garh was further divided into units of 84 villages called chaurasi.
Chaurasi was further divided into barhots which were made up of 12 villages each.
Gradually, they became more powerful and Gond chiefs wished to be recognised as Rajputs.
So, Aman Das, the Gond raja of Garha Katanga, assumed the title of Sangram Shah. His son, Dalpat, married princess Durgawati, the daughter of Salbahan, the Chandel Rajput raja of Mahoba.
After the death of Dalpat, Durgavati ruled the kingdom. She died waging a war against Mughal forces led by Asaf Khan in 1565.
Despite the fall of Garha Katanga, the Gond kingdoms survived for some time. However, they became much weaker and later struggled unsuccessfully against the stronger Bundelas and Marathas.
The Ahoms
The Ahoms migrated to the Brahmaputra valley from present-day Myanmar in the thirteenth century, and created their own state by suppressing bhuijans.
During the sixteenth century, they annexed the kingdoms of the Chhutiyas (1523) and of Koch-Hajo (1581) and subjugated many other tribes.
In 1662, the Mughals under Mir Jumla attacked the Ahom kingdom. Despite their brave defence, the Ahoms were defeated.
The people who were forced to work for state were known as paiks.
Each village had to send a number of paiks by rotation.
Almost all adult males served in the army during war. At other times, they were engaged in building dams, irrigation systems and other public works.
The Ahoms also introduced new methods of rice cultivation.
Ahom society was divided into clans or khels.
A khel often controlled several villages.
Initially, Ahoms worshipped their own tribal gods but as presence of Brahamanas increased in their state, Hinduism became the predominant religion.
Historical works, known as buranjis, were also written – first in the Ahom language and then in Assamese.
Ahom society was very sophisticated where theatre, scholars and poets were encouraged.
